Robbery

• Nationwide in 2006, there were an estimated 447,403 robbery offenses.  This was a 7% increase from 2005. (Federal Bureau of Investigation, 2006).
• The national loss due to robberies was an estimated $567 million  during 2006, with the average dollar value of property stolen per robbery offense at $1,268.  Bank robbery had the highest average dollar value taken -- $4,330 per offense (Ibid).Firearms were used  in 42% of robberies (Ibid).

Overview

Robbery, a form of theft, is usually distinguished from the less serious crime of larceny by two elements:

§          First, in robbery, possessions are taken from a person by the use of threat or force. The Federal Bureau of Investigation in its Uniform Crime Report defines robbery as the "taking or attempting to take anything of value from the care, custody, or control of a person or persons by force, or threat of force or violence and/or by putting the victim in fear" (Federal Bureau of Investigation, 1996). Robbery is thus not just a property crime, but also a crime against the person -- a crime that might result in personal violence. The use or threat of force must be such that it would make a reasonable person fearful. In that sense, the line between theft/larceny and robbery is sometimes thin (Reid, 1988). For example, if an offender grabs a purse, billfold or other piece of property from the victim so quickly that he or she cannot offer any resistance, in some jurisdictions the crime will be classified as larceny, not robbery. In others, it will be considered robbery because of the possibility of force. If there is a struggle between the victim and the offender, it will more likely be classified as a crime of robbery.

§          Second, robbery may be further classified according to the degree of force used or threatened; thus, a jurisdiction might consider armed robbery a more serious crime than robbery without a weapon.

Robbery has become one of the most feared crimes in our nation, as it not only entails loss of property, but also the threat -- or actual use -- of violence. Robbery occurs more frequently than either rape or homicide. Even when victims do not sustain extensive injury or loss, they are often forced to suffer threats of violence and bodily harm at the hands of their assailant. Both property and personal safety are placed at substantial risk during a robbery. The victim encounters the robber face-to-face; therefore, a person who is robbed is immediately aware of a total loss of control. When a weapon is involved, this loss is even more acute, and these circumstances can cause both short-term and long-term crisis reactions for the victim (Bard & Sangrey, 1986).

The Offender
Unlike victims of rape or other assaults, robbery victims are less likely to know their assailant. Perpetrators are acquaintances of their victims in only twenty-six percent (26%) of completed robberies (Reiss & Roth, 1993). Of all violent crimes, robbery is the most likely to be committed by more than one offender: in 1990 about 48 of every 100 completed robberies involved co-s. About eight percent (8%) of robberies involve groups of four or more offenders (Reiss & Roth, 1993).

A specific racial, gender, age or economic group does not account for all robberies, yet some data has shown that a significantly disproportionate number of robberies are committed by men. The Federal Bureau of Investigation states that ninety-one percent (91%) of all robbery arrestees in 1995 were male, and sixty-four percent (64%) were under the age of 25. In addition, thirty-nine percent (39%) of those arrested were white, fifty-nine percent (59%) were black, and the remaining two percent (2%) of arrestees were represented in all other races (Federal Bureau of Investigation, 1996). Between 1991 and 1995, the arrest of juveniles rose eighteen percent (18%), and there was a fifteen percent (15%) decrease in the arrests of persons over 18 years of age (Federal Bureau of Investigation, 1996).

The Circumstances

The circumstances under which a victim is robbed may vary. The aggressor may enter the victim's home, accost him/her on the street -- either in or out of the view of others -- or occasionally in commercial establishments, parks, on public transportation, etc. In 1995, more than half (54%) of all robbery offenses were committed on streets and highways. Twenty-one percent (21%) of all robberies occurred in commercial establishments, and robberies at residences accounted for eleven percent (11%) of all robberies (Federal Bureau of Investigation, 1996). Contrary to popular belief, not all robberies occur at night. In fact, the number of robberies that occurred in full or partial darkness accounted for only a little over half of the robberies in a one-year period (Harlow, 1987). Between 1992 and 1993, there was a one percent (1%) increase in robberies in rural counties and a three percent (3%) decrease in suburban counties (Federal Bureau of Investigation, 1996).

Studies of robbery indicate that, compared with other robbers, those who carry a gun are more likely to complete their robberies without experiencing victim resistance and without injuring the victim. However, because gun injuries are so much more likely to be lethal, the fatality rate for gun robberies -- four per 1,000 -- is about triple the rate in knife robberies and ten times the rate in robberies with other weapons (Cook, 1991). During 1994, the National Crime Victimization Survey reported that the victim sustained some physical injury in thirty-two percent (32%) of robberies (Bureau of Justice Statistics, 1997).

Studies of personal robberies suggest at least one reason other than lethal intentions as to why some robbers use guns -- to enable them to attack certain types of victims, such as businesses and groups of teenage males, who would otherwise be relatively invulnerable. Guns are used more often to rob these types of victims than to rob women and the elderly, who are considered more vulnerable. (Roth, 1994).

Empirical studies of robberies indicate that people differ significantly in the probability that they will be victimized by robbery. Chances of becoming a robbery victim decrease with age and substantially increase with unemployment. Ironically, as income increases, the chances of being victimized by robbery decrease (Reid, 1988). However, evidence on school crime and other studies suggest that attempted and completed robberies of children under age 12 -- and of school children at all ages -- are quite common (Reiss & Roth, 1993).

The Loss

According to the Federal Bureau of Investigation, one robbery occurs every 54 seconds. During 1995, the average value of property loss for a single robbery was $873, with the dollar loss ranging from $400 during a convenience store robbery to $4,015 during a bank robbery (Federal Bureau of Investigation, 1996).

The overall losses to victims and society are sizable. The average cost of a robbery is $19,200. About fifteen percent (15%) of these costs are financial -- victims' monetary losses, society's costs for lost productivity and emergency response to the crime. Roughly eight-five percent (85%) reflects values imputed for nonmonetary losses, such as pain, suffering, the risk of death, psychological damage, and reduced quality of life. Responses to such violence by law enforcement, criminal justice and private security agencies add additional costs (Reiss & Roth, 1993).

Most property lost in robberies is never recovered. In addition, victims of robbery can sustain severe physical injuries such as gun or knife wounds, broken bones, unconsciousness or even rape ( Harlow, 1987). This loss does not account for the intense short-term and long-term emotional trauma suffered by the victim of a robbery.

Emotional Trauma of Robbery Victimization

Typical victim responses to a robbery can include such reactions as:

• Shock;
• Anxiety;
•  Numbness;
•  Anger;
• Disbelief;
•  Despair;
• Fear;
•  Depression;
•  Confusion;
•  Humiliation;
• Helplessness;
• Shame;
• Denial; and
• Guilt.

Victims' old assumptions about the world have been shattered producing intense feelings of anxiety and helplessness, and a preoccupation with fear of a recurrence of the crime. In addition, there is rage at the offender, sadness over the losses involved, discomfort because of a new sense of vulnerability, fear of loss of control, discomfort over aggressive impulses (especially thoughts of revenge), guilt about not having been able to prevent the crime, humiliation, rejection by others, the belief of others that the crime was somehow partially the victim's fault, and an increased suspicion of strangers.

Robbery victims may experience recurrent and intrusive thoughts and dreams of the incident and may also be hyper-alert, startling at little noises or abrupt actions. Changes in eating and sleeping habits are also common. A robbery can be a violent, life-threatening situation and for the victim can incorporate issues of one's own death and fears of leaving loved ones behind.

How victims react to violent crimes such as robbery varies from person to person and is affected by individual factors such as how they usually handle stress and what kind of support systems they have in their lives. Intervention and support after a victim endures a robbery are beneficial for recovery from this crime and its violation of both property and personal safety (Manton & Talbot, 1990). In 1991, an estimated 86,000 robbery victims (4% of all reported robbery victims) were treated by mental health care providers (Miller, Cohen & Wiersema, 1996).

Although robbery victims may feel as if they are the only ones who are experiencing these feelings and that no one else can understand what they are going through, these reactions are a normal response to an abnormal event. Some reactions may continue for some time or resurface after being triggered by another event. Resolution of crisis reactions after a violent crime is a healing process. It is important for the victim to give him/herself permission to heal at their own pace. Just as everyone reacts to a crisis differently, not everyone recovers from a crisis in the same manner or within the same time frame.

Realizing and accepting that these reactions are normal are the first steps to recovery. Another critical step in recovery for the victim is being able to talk about the experience and any crisis reactions in order to validate feelings and fears. As victims talk about the robbery and their reactions, over time the incident will begin to be put into perspective and be integrated into their life.

Robbery victims are not alone. In most communities, there are victim assistance programs, caring professionals, and support groups comprised of other victims of violent crimes all of whom are there to help by providing assistance, services and referrals. To contact crime victim services in your area , check in the front of your local phone book under "Community Services Numbers" or "Emergency Assistance Numbers," or call your local county/city prosecutor's office.

References

Bard, Morton and Dawn Sangrey. (1986). The Crime Victim's Book. (2d ed.). Secaucus, NJ: Citadel Press.

Bureau of Justice Statistics. (1997). Criminal Victimization in the United States , 1994. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Justice, Bureau of Justice Statistics.

Cook, Philip. (1991). "The Technology of Personal Violence." In Michael Tonry, ed., Crime and Justice: A Review of Research. (Volume 14). Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press.

Federal Bureau of Investigation. (2006). Crime in the United States , 2006. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Justice.

Harlow, Caroline. (1987). Robbery Victims -- Bureau of Justice Statistics Special Report. Washington, DC: Bureau of Justice Statistics, U.S. Department of Justice.

Manton, Monica and Alison Talbot. (1990, October). "Crisis Intervention After an Armed Hold-Up: Guidelines for Counselors." Journal of Traumatic Stress, 3(4): 507-522.

Miller, Ted, Mark Cohen and Brian Wiersema. (1996, February). Victim Costs and Consequences: A New Look National Institute of Justice Research Report. Washington, DC: National Institute of Justice, U.S. Department of Justice.

Reid, Sue. (1988). Crime and Criminology. (5th ed.). Chicago, IL: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, Inc.

Reiss, Albert, Jr. and Jeffrey Roth, eds. (1993). Understanding and Preventing Violence. Washington, DC: National Academy Press.

Roth, Jeffrey. (1994, February). Firearms and Violence National Institute of Justice Research in Brief. Washington, DC: National Institute of Justice, U.S. Department of Justice.

Bibliography

Kleck, Gary. (1991). Point Blank: Guns and Violence in America. New York: Walter de Gruyter, Inc.

National Center for Victims of Crime. (1997).  "Drug-Related Crime," Get Help Series, Arlington, VA.

National Center for Victims of Crime. (1995). "Posttraumatic Stress Disorder," Get Help Series, Arlington, VA.

National Center for Victims of Crime. (1998).  "Rights of Crime Victims," Get Help Series, Arlington, VA.

National Center for Victims of Crime. (1997). "Trauma of Victimization," Get Help Series, Arlington, VA.

National Center for Victims of Crime. (1995). "Workplace Violence Employee Information," Get Help Series, Arlington, VA.

For additional information, please contact:

National Crime Prevention Council
2345 Crystal Drive, Suite #500
Arlington, Virginia 22202
(202) 466-6272
www.ncpc.org

Office for Victims of Crime Resource Center
National Criminal Justice Reference Center
U.S. Department of Justice
Box 6000
Rockville, MD 20849
(800) 851-3420
TTY- 1-877- 712-9279
www.ojp.usdoj.gov/ovc

Office for Victims of Crime
U.S. Department of Justice
810 7^th Street, NW
Washington, DC 20531
www.ojp.usdoj.gov/ovc

National Center for Victims of Crime
2000 M Street, NW, Suite #480
Washington, DC 20036
1-800-FYI-CALL
www.ncvc.org

Your state Attorney General, county/city prosecutor, or county/city law enforcement:

Check in the Blue Pages of your local phone book under the appropriate section heading of either "Local Governments," "County Governments," or "State Government."

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